Prepping for Lecture

Okay, so you have a lecture coming up. DON’T walk in there blind. The more you prepare for the (roughly) hour that your professor explains a topic, the more you’ll GET out of that hour. In this blog post, I'll talk about how to do that.

Think of something that you enjoy learning about. When someone explains something to you about your topic - you already know a lot about that topic. You already have a context for the new information. If someone is teaching you to play a new board game - you already know how board games usually work. You can look to see if this one uses dice or a spinner. You can look to see if you move one piece around a set path or not. So as the person explains to you, you have context for their instructions.

If you want to actually learn what someone is explaining to you, you have to have a context for it. You have to have some pieces already in your brain to connect the new knowledge to. This is sometimes called Activating Prior Learning, and good instructors do it in class, by reminding you of topics you've already covered, and helping you see how this new information connects to it.

Okay, now, back to talking about your upcoming lecture. The best way to get context in your brain for the lecture is to prepare for the lecture.

What tools do you already have available to you before the lecture? You have your textbook. Do you have a lecture outline, like a Powerpoint? What other handouts do you have ahead of time (maybe posted on a course shell online)? Gather those materials to read through.

Is this the first lecture on this topic, or will it continue prior discussions? Do you have notes that you took on prior discussions? Put those with your tools to use.

Now, how much information can you glean from these materials on your own? What can you teach yourself with these materials before you get help from someone else? “WHAT??” you exclaim, “what do you mean TEACH MYSELF?”. Here’s the thing: the only one that can learn the material is you. A professor can explain things so you might understand things differently, they can explain how two things relate in case you don’t see the connection yet, they can help you synthesize information. But learning is a fundamental process of YOUR brain, and only YOU can do the step that is “learn” things. 

Another way to look at it: you’re going to be sitting there with these same materials at 3 am the night before your exam. You’re going to be trying to cram it into your brain at that time, using the same materials, but withOUT the benefit of an expert helping to explain it to you the next day. So instead of waiting until the night before the exam, you should get as much as you can out of the materials on your own BEFORE the expert is scheduled to engage with you to add on or help. It’s the same activity, but if you do it before the lecture, you’ll both be able to get MORE out of the lecture, as well as things cleared up that you weren’t able to comprehend just by reading/studying.

Okay, so now I’ve convinced you to prepare for lecture, what should you actually … you know … DO? That depends on your learning style. How do you normally try to comprehend written information? Can you focus on reading for long periods of time? (Most people can’t - so break it up into chunks.) Do you need to write things down while you read in order to keep your mind engaged? (Most people do - and writing helps you retain what you read.)

Here’s what I suggest. Look at your Powerpoint - that shows you what your professor is planning to cover. What’s the topic they are going to cover? Where is that located in your textbook? Now read the section of the chapter that covers that topic. Is there anything that catches your attention that you want to write down? Now look for figures in your Powerpoint. Find the same figures in your textbook. Is there text explaining the figure? Read that. Write down anything you want to remember. And then think about how the text and the figure are trying to explain the concept to you. Is this building on prior lectures or material that’s been covered already? How does it fit in? Make notes on whatever ideas pop into your head.*

Move on to the next topic or part of the concept that is in your Powerpoint. Continue until you’ve studied on your own the material that will be covered in the lecture. 

You can see that this isn’t a simple process, or one that can be knocked out by getting to lecture 15 minutes early. That’s where many A&P students go wrong - they don’t invest the time to PREPARE for lecture, when it will really pay off.

If you’re spending 3 hours outside of class for every hour that you spend in class, some of that time can go toward this preparation, and getting everything out of your book that you can before you come to lecture. It’s really a wise investment of time. If you do this in a focused and engaged way, it will really help you get more out of the time you have with your professor explaining concepts. Block out the time in your planner to sit down and get prepared for what is coming up.

*You can feel free to make these notes on sticky notes that can be removed and thrown away if you think what you’re writing might not be “right”. Try not to get too bogged down with things being “right” or “perfect” and just learn to capture your thoughts in some way. If later studying clarifies your thinking, you can always cross things out, erase them, or toss out the sticky note.

Numerals on Models

A primer for the way that numbers often appear on the models...

Most of our models are handpainted and many come from a European company named Somso. So the numbering and lettering often follow different patterns than you might be used to.

The biggest suggestion I can give you is that, when you first start to work with a model, find the part that is #1, #11, #7, and #77, and that will help you tell how that particular model shows 1s and 7s. Then find part #9, and you'll see how the model demonstrates that digit. If you do this while studying, when you have the model key in front of you, then you'll learn what a "1" and a "7" and a "9" look like, and you'll be much less likely to make a mistake on your exam.

Often a "1" will have an uptick, as seen in the last three items in this image.

A "7" sometimes has a crossbar, and this image shows a "1" and a "7" in this style.

Take a look at your keyboard. How does the number "9" appear? So it shouldn't surprise you that's how a "9" might be painted on the model. So no, it's not a lowercase letter G. If every single item on the model is numbered, why would they choose just that single muscle to paint with a letter? See the real life example below for a handwritten 9 in this style.

Take the time to learn how the model displays various digits. Then you won't be so surprised - or confused - on the lab exam when you are tested using those same models!

Organizing your studies when you are overwhelmed

Okay, so you're back from Spring Break (or will be next week) and the rest of the semester is looming. My classes still have 7 weeks remaining, and this is a good time to buckle down for a successful end to the semester.

Last semester I wrote about what to do if you are impossibly behind at the end of the semester. This semester I want to write earlier about how to prevent being overwhelmed when lots of due dates and comprehensive exams loom.

How to organize your workload:

To start, figure out the work you need to do to finish out your course. Whether you are impossibly behind or caught up, you will have work to do to prepare for your final exams and the end of the semester.  If you are impossibly behind, use your syllabus to figure out work you may have missed, and talk to your instructor about possibilities for late submission. If you are "caught up", your syllabus can still help you go into finals with an effective study plan.

Every class is different, so it is hard for me to give specific advice about your plan. Make sure that you know the requirements that you have left to fulfill for your class, and how you plan to meet them. The important thing is to put your plan in writing. Don't just keep it in your head. When writing it down, break it down as much as possible - this will help when it comes time for 20 minute chunks. 

There are many posts about to-do lists and productivity. Much of that advice is applicable to a written study plan. Write study tasks that are specific, that have an end point, and that are reasonable for you to accomplish. Don't just write "work on bone paper" or "study bones". Instead make your listed items specific: try "find  references on osteoporosis" or "study bone markings of the skull". Phrasing your work items in a specific way will help you avoid the "gloss over" when you look through your list.

How to organize your materials:
Armed with your written plan, move on to organizing your study materials. If your final isn't cumulative, remove any notes from your binder that won't apply to this exam. Put in lots of blank paper for making your study guides that you will use. Don't try to start getting all fancy with color-coded sticky notes and gel pens - make sure you have the essential items you need but don't start an entirely new note taking system at this point.

It is important to keep all of your study materials in your bag or backpack, and keep it with you. You never know when you're going to end up with 20 minutes of time to kill, and you definitely have something that could kill it!

What to do first?

Okay, we have a plan, we have our materials organized, now what? We sit down to study and we still procrastinate not by organizing or stressing about what to do, but now we don't know what to do first. If your instructor has indicated that all topics are equal on your final, then it won't matter if you start in the order the topics were presented in class or go in reverse chronological order. If you are impossibly behind and getting caught up, you might want to go in the order that topics were presented so you make sure to get the background for the current topics. If half of your exam is on a certain topic, however, it might be better to start putting some time toward that topic, and going back to others as they start to relate.

So you know what work to do, you have the supplies to do it, and you have decided where to start. Take a deep breath - doesn't that feel better?

Readers - what do you do to get organized when you feel overwhelmed this time of the semester?

What Can You Do With 20 Minutes?

There is a popular Tumblr called UnF**k Your Habitat. They advocate a process called "20/10s". This is 20 minutes of work (cleaning, organizing, or just generally unf**king) followed by a 10 minute break. Repeat as needed to accomplish what you need to.

There is power in taking things "20 minutes" at a time. It seems manageable, particularly if what you are working on seems daunting or overwhelming in the least. If you are gearing up for finals and the last few weeks of classes, studying in 20 minute chunks will often help you more than unending hours of cramming.

Make a "single sheet":
Pretend that your instructor is allowing you to bring a single sheet of notes to your final exam. What will you put on it? Instructors that I know who employ this technique say it helps students organize the information ahead of the exam, and that writing down some of the information helps them to remember. Take it one topic at a time, and make notes you can use to study.

Do the "blank page" exercise:
Unfortunately you likely have a final exam where a page of notes won't be allowed. Help to prepare for this scenario by doing what I call the Blank Page Exercise. At the top, put a topic or a question ("how" questions are good for this). Then without looking at anything - books, notes, internet - write down everything that you can recall on your own.  This will give you confidence in what you do recall, and help you identify what you need to study more. You can use what you have written as an outline to fill in the details when you turn again to your notes, books, and other resources to study.

Use technology:

What if you are caught with an extra 20 minutes but don't have paper in front of you for even the Blank Page Exercise? Most of us keep our phone or other device handy. If you are able, download an app with photos of the human body you can label. Bookmark a website like StudyBlue with ready-made study guides and flash cards that you can use to quiz yourself. Watch a YouTube lecture on a topic or do a Kahn Academy lesson related to a chapter. Studying a topic using a number of different techniques, including technological ones, can have a real impact on your understanding. Yes, even in 20 minutes.

Record yourself:
A variation of the Blank Page Exercise without paper is to use a voice recording app on your phone or device. Putting concepts into words is an important step in preparing for essay exams. You might actually see your confidence increase when talking about the material you are learning.

What about you, readers? Any 20-minute techniques that you rely on?

Coronoid, Trochlea, and learning the "elbow joint"

When studying the bones, we often study them one-at-a-time to learn the markings and attachment points. However, learning them together with adjacent bones can sometimes make the terminology easier to remember.

One great example of this is the humerus and ulna fitting together at the "elbow joint".

First, recall the general terms of "process" and "fossa". A process is a part of bone that "sticks out" and a fossa is a depression, or a part that "sinks in". Often when bones fit together, the process fits into the fossa. The mandibular process on the mandible fits into the mandibular fossa on the temporal bone.

The ulna and humerus are similar. The ulna has an olecranon process - the humerus has an olecranon fossa.  The ulna has a coronoid process - the humerus as a coronoid fossa. As the joint flexes and extends, the ulna rotates around the trochlea (which fits into the trochlear notch!)

If you Google "ulna and radius" you can find several images showing from various angles how the two bones fit together. Once you understand that, the locations of the olecranon fossa, the coronoid fossa, and the trochlear notch will become much easier to recall.

What if I am Impossibly Behind?

So finals are two or three weeks away. And you have no idea what is going on, let alone what you need to be doing.  Some classes have nothing due these last few weeks, with the expectation that you will be studying for a final exam. Other classes have long term projects coming due in these last few weeks.  

Some people feel impossibly behind when they just don't have a good feel for what is going on right now in the class. Others haven't done anything for the class in some period of time and truly may be "impossibly behind". The first step is to determine what is going on, where you are in relation to where you need to be right now.

Dig out your syllabus. Maybe you have a paper copy, or access to an online copy. Find it. Print a new one. Read it.  Here is what to look for:

1. The instructor's withdrawal policy: some instructors give permission for you to drop up until the last day of class. Others only let you drop up until the midterm - they figure if they have put this much effort into you, you should put some effort in at the end. While impossibly behind doesn't necessarily mean that you need to drop, reading this section will let you know if it is at least an option for you at this point.

2. The grading policy: the syllabus should outline how you will be graded. How much of that have you accomplished? How much is left to do? Is that "on track" with the timeline of the course? Or have you missed due dates or exams along the way? Write down specifically what you are missing. The printable linked at the end of this blog post might help you outline this and see how it might affect your grade.

3. The schedule: this will help you with figuring out due dates that you have missed and what might be coming up.

Are you considering a withdrawal? Here are some factors to consider:

1.  Are you on financial aid? Check with your financial aid office about your best course of action. Sometimes students are asked to repay financial aid or lose future eligibility if they withdraw from a course.

2.  Are you planning to repeat the course? In this case, some students stick it out until the end to get the most exposure to the material possible. In the event of a D or failing grade, you can re-take the class and the grade may replace your grade this semester.

3.  Are you applying for a program in the next semester where your GPA or transcript will be considered? In this case you will likely want to withdraw instead of fail the course, since the failing grade will likely be calculated into your GPA.

Can't, or have decided not to, withdraw? Time to buckle down and get serious about what you can accomplish before the end of the semester.

First, block out some time to work. Look at your schedule between now and finals. Thanksgiving is this week (in the US) and many college students have at least part of this week off. Use that to your advantage - this means time that you can work on studying previous material when new material isn't being added. How much time could you take off work? Could you limit other obligations? Can you get someone to watch your kids while you have uninterrupted study time? Get serious here, you will need a lot of time to try to do a semester's worth of work in three weeks. 

Second, make a plan for the work that you need to do. Are you studying for a comprehensive final exam? What's the last chapter you studied in depth? How many chapters does that leave you? Figure out how you are going to review those chapters in the time you are planning. Have a presentation to give, block out time for research, writing, and rehearsing before the big due date.

Third, figure out your reward. Okay, so if you put your nose to the grindstone for three solid weeks, and you pull it out for this class, think about the reward at the end that will help keep you motivated.

Some other advice:

Think about the expectations for the class so far. How have you done on exams up until now? Do you need to step up your study techniques at this point to try to rock the final? 

Try to hook up with others in your class for study groups. It doesn't have to be the "A" student at this point, just working with others who are also getting serious for the end of the class will be beneficial for you. This can also help you wrap your mind around where you are in the course relative to where you need to be.

Talk to your instructor. Yes, some instructors get peeved when a student they haven't seen in months shows up asking "what do I need to do to pass this class?" - that's not what I am suggesting. Make an appointment - you don't ever want to have an important discussion on the fly at the end of class in front of other students. Be sure you are well versed in what you need to do for the course. If you have missed a deadline, ask for an extension. The worse they can say is no, but they may be willing to compromise. Plan what you want to ask for - don't plan excuses. Even it is the truth, and the real reason you fell behind, instructors hear "my grandmother died" or "my kid was really sick" ALL THE TIME. Knowing the reason you fell behind is NOT likely to influence their decision about extending your deadline or giving you another chance on work. What WILL influence that decision is how prepared you are for the conversation, how much you have informed yourself what you need to do, and how well you have planned to do it.

Okay, so you've talked to the instructor, found a group of students to work with, and you know what you need to do in the next three weeks. It's time to buckle down and just do it.

Have any of you had a semester where you fell behind? Were you able to get caught up? Have advice to share with the impossibly behind student? 

Free Printable: Calculating My Grade

Does Spelling Count?

When learning new terminology, particularly in Anatomy and Physiology, many students ask "is spelling important?"  Compare these sets of terms to answer that question for yourself!

coxal versus coccygeal:

• The "hip bone" is the os coxa, so coxal refers to the hip area.
• The coccyx, or tailbone, is located at the very end of the vertebral column. It helps form part of the pelvis, along with the two os coxa.

peroneal versus perineal:

These two terms only differ by a single letter. How important is that letter? Let's find out.

• peroneal is another word for fibular, referring to the side of the leg where the fibula is located (the lateral side of each leg). (Look, the link even says don't confuse it with perineal!)
• perineal is the surface region between the external genitalia and the coccyx.

So what do you think - does that one letter make a difference? Lower leg or genitals - I think it does!

Crural and Sural

One of the most confusing sets of regional terms we learn in the beginning of Anatomy and Physiology is "crural" versus "sural". Most medical dictionaries are pretty clear on "sural" - pertaining to the posterior lower limb. Some people call that the calf area of the leg. The sural nerve travels here.

What some textbooks don't seem to agree on is the use of the word "crural". Most definitions give "pertaining to the leg". However some of those same texts make the not-so-helpful clarification of the words "arm and "leg" into terms for the arm and forearm, and thigh and leg.So if "arm" really means the upper arm, then does "leg" really mean the upper leg?

Some textbooks would say yes, crural includes "pertaining to the leg or thigh" as a more complete definition. But then a figure in those same texts point to the front of the lower leg when using "crural".

Here is my take: If we use the arm analogy, then arm:forearm as crural:sural. In this case, crural refers to the upper leg and sural the lower, specifically the posterior lower area of the leg.  You could get by with using "crural" to describe the entire leg, however, and use "sural" when specifically referring to the calf (posterior lower leg).

Does this all seem like semantics? Probably it does, but isn't all vocabulary semantics?  We want to try to use correct terminology because that is the only way to communicate across distance - like in writing. When a nurse writes notes that a doctor later reads, everyone needs to be on the same page with what the words mean. If you see these particular terms, you might want to ask for clarification. Apparently different textbooks teach this term in different ways!

Section Terms

In Biology, as in Real Life, when we want to look at the inside of something, we usually have to cut it open.  When one person learns the inside "parts" of something and wants to teach someone else, they often draw a representation and label the parts, and that is how they communicate the names of the parts to someone else.

For instance, if you want to know the parts inside an apple:

You can find a figure of the apple cut open, with the parts labeled.  Since we are all familiar with what an apple looks like on the outside, the cross-section image makes sense to us, and we can learn the names of the parts.

This week in lecture and lab we are learning about the terminology related to planes of section.  This is a figure from another lab manual that helps to correlate some of the terms, and how they would affect a slice of a structure on a slide.

Next week we are going to start learning how to use the microscope to look at slices of tissue.  We will need to use some of the information learned about sections and apply it to microscopic images. This can be a confusing step sometimes - we understand from experience what an apple looks like, but we don't always have a good idea what a "duct" or a "gland" looks like.

So we use artists drawings of the three-dimensional structure to try to understand what we are looking at a slice of under the microscope.

We will take time in lab to understand more about the microscope slides we are studying.  The first step, though, is thinking about the planes of section and learning the terms.  Good luck!

Using Animations to Learn - No Matter What Your Learning Style

In the last blog post I described how to interpret your results of the Learning Styles questionnaire.  Once you know about how you learn, you can tailor your studying to try to maximize learning based on those styles.

In class, I use a number of animations and videos to help demonstrate some of the physiological processes that we are studying.  From the Interactive Physiology cd that I recommend on the syllabus to the Wiley Plus online material that accompanies the textbook, there are a number of animations that we view in class.  Added to that are videos and links posted in Blackboard, and there could be hours of materials to view for each chapter or system.

Many times, students who score more strongly as Verbal tend to steer clear of animations, thinking that because they are not a Visual learner, that they might not be able to benefit from the videos and animations.  In this post, I would encourage students of various different learning styles to use the videos and animations, although the way you use them may vary.

Active Learners will likely benefit from animations or videos that are presented in a step-wise manner.  By being forced to click to advance to the next step or screen, students remain engaged with the process.

Reflective Learners might benefit from animations or videos that are short and present a single concept at a time.  These students can watch a single concept, and then take the time to process the information, before moving on to the next concept.  If you are a Reflective learner and you find yourself watching an animation or video that is long or covers several concepts, feel free to pause or stop it, make notes or review the material in your mind, and then resume with the next concept.

Sensing Learners often enjoy learning from animations because watching and listening cater directly to their learning style.  These students should be careful to understand the entire process, rather than memorizing exactly what the animation displays.

Intuitive Learners can benefit from animations that are part of a series.  Because Intuitives like to look for relationships between concepts, they enjoy hearing more than one animation explain the same concept or demonstrate relationships between them.

While it is obvious that Visual learners often use animations because of the movement and visual effects, Verbal learners should not discount the use of animations and videos in their studying.  Many animations and videos also contain narration that many Verbal learners find just as useful as the visual effects.  Also, many Verbal students find that a static figure is too difficult to decipher, but an animation that introduces just a section at a time, or that gives verbal explanation alongside, is enough to help them understand the visual aid.

Sequential learners often benefit from animations and videos that present information in a logical sequence.  Because this is how these students process information best, the stepwise sequence helps them to understand the process they are studying.  As in the previous post, I encourage Sequential learners to stretch themselves by summarizing to try to see the “big picture” and the connections with other processes.

Global thinkers often find animations tedious if they seem to be a series of details that the Global learner has trouble fitting together.  Check to see if the video or animation has an overall summary – this might even be at the end.  By quickly reviewing the summary, you can have a kind of overview that might help you understand where the details fit when you re-watch the video or animation from the beginning.

As you use your learning style to get the most from animations and videos, keep track of the kinds of animations or videos that seem to work the best for you.  Is there a particular textbook publisher’s animations that work well – because they give an overview, for example, or they are short and focus on a single concept?  Bookmark their page, or look for other animations by the same publisher.  Is there are YouTube user whose videos you found especially helpful?  See if that user has posted videos on other topics you need to learn about.

I am of the opinion that animations and videos can help every student learn new concepts.  Different learners might use different ones, or might use them in different ways, but I encourage you to give them a try, and see what works for you.

Interpreting Learning Styles Results

The Learning Styles Inventory that I recommend to students gives results on four aspects of learning styles.  The authors of the Questionnaire have published a guide to help you interpret your results, and your position on each index.

The first index is Active versus Reflective learning styles.  The authors emphasize that everyone can be active and reflective at different times, but “a balance of the two is desirable”.  This is particularly true in A&P, where part of the class is taught as lecture and part of the class is taught as participation in lab. 

Sometimes students that score more strongly as a Reflective learning style tell me that they find it hard to work in lab, which requires a more Active learning style, because they need time to think about and process the information.  Those students then find that they either have to attend more Open Lab times to actually do the lab material, or they don’t get to work with the materials as much as they would like.  My suggestion to those students is to make sure that they come to lab prepared.  I recommend that they look at the lab sheet (posted on Bb) ahead of the lab, and review the relevant sections of the lab ahead of time.  This will allow them time to reflect on the lab material and organize their work prior to the lab session.  By completing some pre-lab activities, reading sections of the book, and looking at what items are required for identification on the models, a Reflective learner can process the preliminary information at their own pace, and might feel more prepared for the lab class.

Active learners are usually more successful working in groups, actively discussing the material they are trying to learn.  Lab material lends itself to this type of learning, but some students have a hard time figuring out how to manage lecture information if they are an Active learner.  These students usually find they are more successful when they work with their lab partners on both lab material as well as lecture material.  By discussing concepts in an active way, they can use their learning style to be successful in both areas of the class.

The second index is Sensing versus Intuitive learning styles.  This is another index where students can be Sensing at some times and Intuitive at other times.  The Sensing learning style refers to the “5 senses” – Sensing learners like learning material with a factual basis, that can be measured by the sensed.  Intuitive learners are more successful learning material by determining relationships between concepts.

According to the authors, If you overemphasize Sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods and non concentrate enough on understanding…”  While there are elements of the course that require memorization, there are other areas of the course that require comprehension and making connections between concepts presented in different systems.  I always encourage students to try to remain balanced in using the Sensing and Intuitive learning styles.

The third index shows your preference for Visual and Verbal learning styles.  Most people do have a definite preference in this index.  Many people who take science courses are Visual learners, but that is not true of all students.  I have worked over the years to make sure that when I present information in lecture, that both Visual and Verbal learning styles are accommodated in my Powerpoint slides.  While I may have one slide that will be a figure from the textbook that I will explain in class, the next slide will often have words that explain the same process.  Verbal learners may prefer the slide with the written explanation – or the accompanying paragraphs in the textbook – while Visual learners may prefer the figure or diagram to help them learn the process.  That isn’t to say that Verbal learners should never look at a figure or Visual learners should never read the text.  It is to say that you can use your preference, if possible, when learning physiological processes like we are studying.  For example, Verbal learners can use the figure caption and text beside each step to help them determine what the figure is trying to convey.

The last index helps you understand if you are a Sequential or a Global learner.  Sequential learners prefer to have information presented in steps or a logical order.  Global thinkers need to see the “big picture” for new information to make sense.  In class I try to meet the needs of both kinds of learners.  I will often give an overview of a new topic, so that Global learners can see how the information we will discuss fits into an overall framework.  For Sequential thinkers, this overview can be overwhelming, as they are trying to understand all the details at once instead of in a step-wise fashion they prefer.  After the overview, I then present information in a step-wise way, which is where the Sequential learners will begin to feel comfortable.  I then conclude by summarizing or trying to tie together the information covered.  This helps the Sequential learners make sure they have their logical order of steps, and helps the Global learners see again how all the details fit together.

Because critical thinking and mastery of a subject often requires relating different concepts that you have learned, it is always good to practice Global thinking and challenge yourself if you are not a Global learner.  By forcing yourself to summarize or see the “big picture” you can help break out of a purely stepwise learning pattern and see the connections between larger concepts.  In fact, much of the critical thinking we try to develop is designed to move students from Sequential thinking to Global thinking, to see how different systems are working together to maintain physiological processes.

I have been using this Index of Learning Styles for several years now, and every semester I have students report that learning their style for each of these indexes – and how to optimize their studying based on their learning style – has been helpful for their success in A&P.